"Up to 80% of renal calculi are formed by calcium stones 3. Other types include struvite, uric acid, and cystine stones. In specific patient groups, mucoprotein (matrix), xanthine, or indinavir (and other drug-related) stones may be encountered (rarely)."
"A plain abdominal (KUB) film can identify large radiopaque calculi. However, smaller calculi and/or radiolucent stones may go undetected. Obstruction/hydronephrosis cannot be adequately assessed."
"A plain abdominal (KUB) film can identify large radiopaque calculi. However, smaller calculi and/or radiolucent stones may go undetected. Obstruction/hydronephrosis cannot be adequately assessed."
"Non-contrast CT (CT KUB) is the gold standard for imaging ureteric stones, with the vast majority (99%) being radiodense. Stones >1 mm in size are visualised, with the specificity of helical CT as high as 100% 5."
"CT KUB can also detect secondary signs of urinary tract obstruction, including ureterohydronephrosis and perinephric stranding."
"Patients with ureteric calculi may present with pain, often colicky, haematuria, nausea and vomiting."
"A prompt decline in renal perfusion particularly affects the outer medulla and is accompanied by reduced glomerular filtration rate, afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction and increased interstitial pressure. Within hours, evidence of tubular injury and inflammation appears. Prolonged obstruction leads to tubular atrophy, fibrosis and irreversible loss of renal function."
"Pyelovenous backflow follows tubular, forniceal or venous rupture and can be recognised by the presence of urinary constituents in blood. Pyelolymphatic backflow removes interstitial urine, and these lymphatics may opacify on intravenous contrast. Delayed subcapsular enhancement and cystic subcapsular fluid collections may be seen. Both pyelovenous and pyelolymphatic backflow help to relieve pressure but increase the risk of systemic infection 13,14."