"genetic mutations may affect any of the various growth factors 1616. which promote cell proliferation and differentiation, bronchial branching, angiogenesis, alveolar cell proliferation, and alveolarisation"
"mediastinal mass(es)/tumour(s)"
"prolonged preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM); predictors of fatal pulmonary hypoplasia include gestational age < 25 weeks, long duration and low amniotic fluid index"
"neuromuscular conditions such as iniencephaly, spinal muscular atrophy, or congenital myotonic dystrophy are causes of ineffective foetal breathing movements and reduced foetal lung volume"
"neuromuscular conditions such as iniencephaly, spinal muscular atrophy, or congenital myotonic dystrophy are causes of ineffective foetal breathing movements and reduced foetal lung volume"
"This can often better demonstrate the abnormalities seen on radiographs, and allows further interrogation of the underlying anatomy, compensatory or post-surgical change 17. Specific appearances vary with the underlying aetiology and iatrogenic interventions, but features that can be assessed include:"
"fetal lung : head ratio"
"thoracic : abdominal circumference ratio"
"femur length : abdominal circumference ratio"
"Pulmonary hypoplasia is often a critical determinant of fetal survival, however underlying causes affect both prognosis and treatment. Perinatal mortality rate is typically between 70 - 95%. Right-sided lesions and genetic abnormalities carry a poor prognosis."
"Potter sequence: fetal renal anomalies"
"prolonged preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM); predictors of fatal pulmonary hypoplasia include gestational age < 25 weeks, long duration and low amniotic fluid index"
"PPROM: corticosteroids promote lung maturation in fetuses over 24 weeks gestation. Amnioinfusions decrease the incidence of pulmonary hypoplasia."
"Pulmonary hypoplasia is often a critical determinant of fetal survival, however underlying causes affect both prognosis and treatment. Perinatal mortality rate is typically between 70 - 95%. Right-sided lesions and genetic abnormalities carry a poor prognosis."
Expected headings
"Aetiology"
"Imaging features"
"Radiograph"
"CT"
"Ultrasound"
"Doppler"
"MRI"
"Pulmonary hypoplasia has been reported to affect 1.4% of all live births 13; however, the true prevalence is difficult to establish, as some die in utero and mild cases may go undetected. In cases of premature rupture of membranes at 15-28 weeks gestation, the reported prevalence of pulmonary hypoplasia is 9-28%, the variation being due to the lack of strict diagnostic criteria 2."
"prolonged preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM); predictors of fatal pulmonary hypoplasia include gestational age < 25 weeks, long duration and low amniotic fluid index"
"T2: normal fetal lung is usually high signal on T2; fetuses with pulmonary hypoplasia are thought to have low signal 1"
"Pulmonary hypoplasia is commonly lethal in the neonatal period. Milder forms present with neonatal respiratory insufficiency, pulmonary hypertension and persistent fetal circulation, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, pulmonary haemorrhage, recurrent infections, bronchiectasis, and hypoxaemia exacerbated by exercise. Associated congenital abnormalities are often apparent. Occasionally, the first presentation maybe an abnormal chest radiograph in an adult."
"This can often better demonstrate the abnormalities seen on radiographs, and allows further interrogation of the underlying anatomy, compensatory or post-surgical change 17. Specific appearances vary with the underlying aetiology and iatrogenic interventions, but features that can be assessed include:"